Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Reducing the Need for Personal Supports Among Workers with Autism Using an iPod Touch as an Assistive Technology: Delayed Randomized Control Trial

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Personal digital assistants (PDAs) are versatile task organizers that hold promise as assistive technologies for people with cognitive-behavioral challenges. This delayed randomized controlled trial compared two groups of adult workers with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) to determine whether the use of an Apple iPod Touch PDA as a vocational support improves work performance and reduces personal support needs on the job. Baseline data were collected on 50 adults with ASD who were beginning a vocational placement supported by a job coach. Participants were randomized to receive training in the use of a PDA as a vocational aid upon starting their job or after working 12 weeks without PDA support. Workers who received PDA training at the beginning of their job placement required significantly less hours of job coaching support (p = 0.013) during their first 12 weeks on the job than those who had not yet received the intervention. Functional performance between the two groups was not significantly different. The significant difference in hours of job coaching support persisted during the subsequent 12 weeks, in which both groups used a PDA (p = 0.017).

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Achmadi, D., Kagohara, D. M., van der Meer, L., O’Reilly, M. F., Lancioni, G. E., Sutherland, D., et al. (2012). Teaching advanced operation of an iPod-based speech-generating device to two students with autism spectrum disorders. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 6(4), 1258–1264.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Allen, K. D., Wallace, D. P., Renes, D., Bowen, S. L., & Burke, R. V. (2010a). Community-based vocational instruction using videotaped modeling for young adults with autism spectrum disorders performing in air-inflated mascots. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 25(3), 186–192.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Allen, K. D., Wallace, D. P., Renes, D., Bowen, S. L., & Burkey, R. V. (2010b). Use of video modeling to teach vocational skills to adolescents and young adults with autism spectrum disorders. Education and Treatment of Children, 33(3), 339–349.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Assistive Technology Act of 1998, as amended, PL 108-364, Section 3, 118 stat 1707 (2004).

  • Baio, J. (2014). Prevalence of autism spectrum disorder among children aged 8 years—Autism and developmental disabilities monitoring network, 11 sites, United States, 2010. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 63(SS02), 1–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barnhill, G. P. (2007). Outcomes in adults with Asperger syndrome. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disorders, 22(2), 116–126.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bellini, S., & Akullian, J. (2007). A meta-analysis of video modeling and video self-modeling interventions for children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders. Exceptional Children, 73(3), 264–287.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bereznak, S., Ayres, K. M., Mechling, L., & Alexander, J. L. (2012). Video self-prompting and mobile technology to increase daily living and vocational independence for students with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 24(3), 269–285.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bolte, S., Golan, O., Goodwin, M. S., & Zwaigenbaum, L. (2010). What can innovative technologies do for autism spectrum disorders? Autism, 14(3), 155–159.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Borg, J., Larrson, S., & Ostergren, P. (2011). The right to assistive technology: For whom, for what, and by whom? Disability & Society, 26(2), 151–167.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boyd, B. A., McDonough, S. G., & Bodfish, J. W. (2012). Evidence-based behavioral interventions for repetitive behaviors in autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42(6), 1236–1248.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burke, V. B., Allen, K. D., Howard, M. R., Downey, D., Matz, M. G., & Bowen, S. L. (2013). Tablet-based video modeling and prompting in the workplace for individuals with autism. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 38(1), 1–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Capo, L. C. (2001). Autism, employment and the role of occupational therapy. A Journal of Prevention, Assessment, and Rehabilitation, 16(1), 201–207.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chen, S. H. A., & Bernard-Optiz, V. (1993). Comparison of personal and computer-assisted instruction for children with autism. Mental Retardation, 31, 368–376.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cihak, D. F., Fahrenkrog, C., Ayres, K. M., & Smith, C. (2010). The use of video modeling via a video iPod and a system of least prompts to improve transitional behaviors for students with autism spectrum disorders in the general education classroom. Journal of Positive Behavior Intervention, 12(2), 103–115.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cihak, D. F., Kessler, & Alberto, P. (2008). Use of a handheld prompting system to transition independently through vocational tasks for students with moderate and severe intellectual disabilities. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 43(1), 102–110.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cimera, R. E. (2012). The economics of supported employment: What new data tells us. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 37(2), 109–117.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cimera, R. E., & Cowan, R. J. (2009). The costs of services and employment outcomes achieved by adults with autism in the U.S. Autism, 13(3), 285–302.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cook, A. M., & Polgar, J. M. (2008). Cook and Hussey’s assistive technologies: Principles and practice (pp. 34–52). St. Louis: Mosby.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dijkers, M. (1991). Scoring CHART: Survey and sensitivity analysis. Journal of the American Paraplegia Society, 14, 85–86.

    Google Scholar 

  • Furniss, F., Ward, A., Lancioni, G., Rocha, N., Cunha, B., Seedhouse, P., et al. (1999). A palmtop-based job aid for workers with severe intellectual disabilities. Technology and Disability, 10(1), 53–67.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gentry, T. (2008). Personal digital assistants as cognitive aids for people with multiple sclerosis. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 62(1), 18–27.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gentry, T., Lau, S., Molinelli, A., Fallen, A., & Kriner, R. (2012). The Apple iPod Touch as a vocational support aid for adults with autism: Three case studies. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 37, 75–85.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gentry, T., Wallace, J., Kvarfordt, C., & Lynch, K. B. (2008). Personal digital assistants as cognitive aids for individuals with severe traumatic brain injury: A community-based trial. Brain Injury, 22(1), 19–24.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gentry, T., Wallace, J., Kvarfordt, C., & Lynch, K. B. (2010). Personal digital assistants as cognitive aids for high school students with autism: Results of a community-based trial. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 32(2), 101–107.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hall, K. M., Dijkers, M., Whiteneck, G. G., Brooks, C. A., & Krause, J. S. (1998). The Craig handicap assessment and reporting technique (CHART): Metric properties and scoring. Topics in Spinal Cord Injury Rehabilitation, 4(1), 16–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hendricks, D. R., & Wehman, P. (2009). Transition from school to adulthood for youth with autism spectrum disorders: Review and recommendations. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disorders, 24(2), 77–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Henninger, N. A., & Taylor, J. L. (2013). Outcomes in adults with autism spectrum disorders: A historical perspective. Autism, 17(1), 103–116.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hurlbutt, K., & Chalmers, L. (2004). Employment and adults with Asperger syndrome. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 19(4), 215–222.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jaeger, P. T. (2012). Disability and the internet: Confronting a digital divide (pp. 12–14). Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kellems, R. O., & Morningstar, M. E. (2012). Using video modeling delivered through iPods to teach vocational tasks to young adults with autism spectrum disorders. Career Development and Transition for Exceptional Individuals, 35(3), 155–167.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kuppens, S., Bossaert, G., Buntinx, W., Molleman, C., Van den Abbeele, A., & Maes, B. (2010). Factorial validity of the supports intensity scale (SIS). American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 115(4), 327–339.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Macdonald, S. J., & Clayton, J. (2013). Back to the future: Disability and the digital divide. Disability & Society, 28(5), 25–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Matson, J. L., & Rivet, T. T. (2008). Characteristics of challenging behaviors in adults with autistic disorder. PDD-NOS, and intellectual disability, Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disability, 33(4), 323–329.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McDonough, J. T., & Revell, G. (2010). Accessing employment supports in the adult system for transitioning youth with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 32(2), 89–100.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mechling, L. C., Gast, D. L., & Seid, N. H. (2009). Using a personal digital assistant to increase task completion by students with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 39(10), 1420–1434.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Myles, B. S., Ferguson, H., & Hagiwara, T. (2007). Using a personal digital assistant to improve the recording of homework assignments by an adolescent with Asperger syndrome. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 22(2), 96–99.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oriani, M., Moniz-Cook, E., Binetti, G., Zanieri, G., Frisoni, G. B., & Geroldi, C. (2003). An electronic memory aid to support prospective memory in patients in the early stages of Alzheimer’s disease: A pilot study. Aging Mental Health, 7(1), 22–27.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pierangelo, R., & Giuliani, G. A. (2008). Teaching students with autism spectrum disorders. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ploog, B. O., Scharf, A., Nelson, D., & Brooks, P. J. (2013). Use of computer-assisted technologies (CAT) to enhance social, communicative, and language development in children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43(2), 301–322.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Segal, M. E., & Schall, R. R. (1995). Assessing handicap of stroke survivors: A validation study of the Craig handicap assessment and reporting technique. American Journal of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 74(4), 276–286.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shattuck, P. T., Narendorf, S. C., Cooper, B., Sterzing, P. R., Wagner, M., & Taylor, J. L. (2012). Postsecondary education and employment among youth with an autism spectrum disorder. Pediatrics, 129(6), 1042–1049.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Simons, D., & Gentry, T. (2012). A pilot study of the Apple iPod Touch as a cognitive-behavioral aid for adults with mental illness. Virginia Occupational Therapy Conference, Wintergreen, VA.

  • Taylor, J. L., & Seltzer, M. M. (2011). Employment and post-secondary educational activities for young adults with autism spectrum disorders during the transition to adulthood. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 41(5), 566–574.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, J. R., Bryant, B. R., Campbell, E. M., Craig, E. M., Campbell, E. M., Hughes, C., et al. (2004). Supports intensity scale. Washington, DC: American Association on Mental Retardation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, J. R., Tasse, M. J., & McLaughlin, C. A. (2008). Interrater reliability of the supports intensity scale. American Journal of Mental Retardation, 113(3), 231–237.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Virginia Department of Aging and Rehabilitative Services. (2009). Employee performance evaluation report. Richmond, VA: VDARS.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wehman, P., Schall, C., McDonough, J., Molinelli, A., Riehle, E., Ham, W., et al. (2013). Project SEARCH for youth with autism spectrum disorders: Increasing competitive employment on transition from high school. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 15(3), 144–155.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wehmeyer, M., Thompson, J. R., Schalock, R., & Tasse, M. J. (2009). Efficacy of the supports intensity scale (SIS) to predict extraordinary support needs. American Journal on Intellectual and Development Disabilities, 114(1), 3–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wehmeyer, M. L., & Webb, K. W. (2012). Handbook of adolescent transition education for youth with disabilities. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weiss, J. A., Lunsky, Y., Tasse, M. J., & Durbin, J. (2009). Support for the construct validity of the supports intensity scale based on clinician ranking of need. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 30(5), 933–941.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Whiteneck, G. G., Brooks, C. A., Charlifue, S., Gerhart, K. A., Melick, D., & Overholser, D. (1992a). Guide for the use of the CHART: Craig handicap assessment and reporting technique. Englewood, CO: Craig Hospital.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whiteneck, G. G., Charlifue, S., Gerhart, K. A., Overholser, D., & Richardson, G. N. (1992b). Quantifying handicap: A new measure of long-term rehabilitation outcomes. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 73(6), 519–526.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, C., Wright, B., Callaghan, G., & Coughlan, B. (2002). Do children with autism learn to read more readily by computer assisted instruction or traditional book methods? Autism, 6(1), 71–91.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization. (2001). International classification of functioning, disability and health. Geneva: World Health Organization.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors gratefully acknowledge a National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research Grant to the Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Work Supports at Virginia Commonwealth University for funding this project, and the involvement of the Virginia Department of Aging and Rehabilitative Services, which donated assessors, job coach participants, and the purchase of iPod Touches and peripherals used in the project. We gratefully acknowledge the workers with ASD who participated in the study and the employers who allowed the study on their premises.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Occupational Therapy, Virginia Commonwealth University, 730 East Broad Street, 2nd Floor, Richmond, VA, USA

    Tony Gentry

  2. Virginia Department of Aging and Rehabilitative Services, Richmond, VA, USA

    Richard Kriner

  3. Department of Biostatistics, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA

    Adam Sima

  4. Rehabilitation Research and Training Center for Work Supports, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA

    Jennifer McDonough & Paul Wehman

Authors
  1. Tony Gentry
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Richard Kriner
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Adam Sima
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Jennifer McDonough
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Paul Wehman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Tony Gentry.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary material 1 (DOC 87 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Gentry, T., Kriner, R., Sima, A. et al. Reducing the Need for Personal Supports Among Workers with Autism Using an iPod Touch as an Assistive Technology: Delayed Randomized Control Trial. J Autism Dev Disord 45, 669–684 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-014-2221-8

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-014-2221-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation